Scientific References

Supporting References for the Article

Salt and Human Physiology

The following references provide the scientific foundation for the concepts discussed throughout Salt and Human Physiology. They include standard medical physiology textbooks, nephrology and cardiovascular references, international clinical guidelines, landmark clinical studies, and peer-reviewed review articles relating to sodium physiology, potassium homeostasis, hydration, electrolyte balance, blood pressure regulation, insulin resistance, renal physiology, and human metabolism.

A. Medical Physiology

Boron WF, Boulpaep EL. Medical Physiology. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 2022.

Ganong WF. Review of Medical Physiology. 26th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Education; 2019.

Guyton AC, Hall JE. Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology. 15th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 2024.

Hall JE. Guyton and Hall Physiology Review. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 2021.

Harrison TR, Jameson JL, Fauci AS, Kasper DL, Hauser SL, Loscalzo J, eds. Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine.22nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Education; 2024.

Melmed S, Auchus RJ, Goldfine AB, Koenig RJ, Rosen CJ, eds. Williams Textbook of Endocrinology. 15th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 2024.

B. Renal Physiology and Electrolyte Homeostasis

Brenner BM, Rector FC, eds. Brenner & Rector's The Kidney. 12th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 2024.

Koeppen BM, Stanton BA. Renal Physiology. 6th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 2023.

Palmer BF, Clegg DJ. Physiology and Pathophysiology of Potassium Homeostasis. Advances in Physiology Education.2016;40(4):480–490.

Shibata S, Fujita T. The Kidney and Hypertension: Roles of Sodium Handling and the Renin–Angiotensin–Aldosterone System. Clinical Science. 2011;120(3):85–96.

Verbalis JG. Disorders of Water Balance. In: Melmed S, Auchus RJ, Goldfine AB, Koenig RJ, Rosen CJ, eds. Williams Textbook of Endocrinology. 15th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 2024.

C. Cardiovascular Physiology and Hypertension

Braunwald E, Zipes DP, Libby P, Bonow RO, Mann DL, Tomaselli GF, eds. Braunwald's Heart Disease: A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine. 12th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 2022.

Blaustein MP, Leenen FHH, Chen L, et al. How NaCl Raises Blood Pressure: A New Paradigm for the Pathogenesis of Salt-Dependent Hypertension. American Journal of Physiology – Heart and Circulatory Physiology. 2012;302:H1031–H1049.

de Wardener HE, MacGregor GA. Sodium and Blood Pressure. Current Opinion in Cardiology. 2002;17(4):360–367.

Filippini T, Malavolti M, Whelton PK, et al. Blood Pressure Effects of Sodium Reduction: Dose–Response Meta-analysis of Experimental Studies. Circulation. 2021;143(16):1542–1567.

He FJ, MacGregor GA. Salt Reduction Lowers Cardiovascular Risk: Meta-analysis of Outcome Trials. The Lancet.2011;378(9789):380–382.

He FJ, Tan M, Ma Y, MacGregor GA. Salt Reduction to Prevent Hypertension and Cardiovascular Disease. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2020;75(6):632–647.

Sacks FM, Svetkey LP, Vollmer WM, et al. Effects on Blood Pressure of Reduced Dietary Sodium and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) Diet. New England Journal of Medicine. 2001;344(1):3–10.

Whelton PK, Carey RM, Aronow WS, et al. 2017 ACC/AHA Guideline for the Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Management of High Blood Pressure in Adults. Hypertension. 2018;71(6):e13–e115.

D. Sodium, Potassium and Human Physiology

Denton DA. The Hunger for Salt: An Anthropological, Physiological and Medical Analysis. Berlin: Springer-Verlag; 1982.

Institute of Medicine (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. Washington, DC: National Academies Press; 2019.

Kraut JA, Madias NE. Metabolic Acidosis and Electrolyte Disorders. Nature Reviews Nephrology. 2018;14(10):589–603.

Wright EM, Loo DDF, Hirayama BA. Biology of Human Sodium–Glucose Transporters. Physiological Reviews.2011;91(2):733–794.

World Health Organization. Oral Rehydration Salts: Production of the New ORS. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2006.

E. Salt, Blood Pressure and Population Studies

Elliott P, Stamler J, Nichols R, et al. Intersalt Revisited: Further Analyses of 24-Hour Sodium Excretion and Blood Pressure Within and Across Populations. BMJ. 1996;312:1249–1253.

Intersalt Cooperative Research Group. Intersalt: An International Study of Electrolyte Excretion and Blood Pressure. Results for 24-Hour Urinary Sodium and Potassium Excretion. BMJ. 1988;297:319–328.

Mente A, O'Donnell MJ, Rangarajan S, et al. Associations of Urinary Sodium Excretion with Cardiovascular Events in Individuals with and Without Hypertension: A Pooled Analysis of Data from Four Studies. The Lancet.2016;388(10043):465–475.

Mente A, O'Donnell MJ, Rangarajan S, et al. Urinary Sodium and Potassium Excretion, Mortality, and Cardiovascular Events. New England Journal of Medicine. 2014;371(7):601–611.

Stamler J. The INTERSALT Study: Background, Methods, Findings, and Implications. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 1997;65(2 Suppl):626S–642S.

F. Insulin Resistance, Metabolic Health and Blood Pressure

Palmer BF, Clegg DJ. Electrolyte and Acid–Base Disturbances in Patients with Diabetes Mellitus. New England Journal of Medicine. 2015;373(6):548–559.

Reaven GM. Role of Insulin Resistance in Human Disease. Diabetes. 1988;37(12):1595–1607.

G. Clinical Practice Guidelines

Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) Blood Pressure Work Group.

KDIGO 2021 Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Blood Pressure in Chronic Kidney Disease. Kidney International. 2021;99(Suppl 3):S1–S87.

World Health Organization. Guideline: Potassium Intake for Adults and Children. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2012.

World Health Organization. Guideline: Sodium Intake for Adults and Children. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2012.

H. Additional Reading

DiNicolantonio JJ. The Salt Fix: Why the Experts Got It All Wrong—and How Eating More Might Save Your Life. New York: Harmony Books; 2017.